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23.01.2009
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Shiva:(pronunciation: ; Sanskrit: शिव, Śiva, lit. "Auspicious one" ) is a major Hindu god, and one aspect of Trimurti. In the Shaiva tradition of Hinduism, Shiva is seen as the supreme God. In the Smartha tradition, he is one of the five primary forms of God.
Followers of Hinduism who focus their worship upon Shiva are called Shaivites or Shaivas (Sanskrit Śaiva). Shaivism, along with Vaiṣṇava traditions that focus on Vishnu, and Śākta traditions that focus on the goddess Devī are three of the most influential denominations in Hinduism.
Shiva is usually worshipped in the form of Shiva linga. In images, he is generally represented as immersed in deep meditation or dancing the Tandava upon maya, the demon of ignorance in his manifestation of Nataraja, the lord of the dance.
In some other Hindu denominations, Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva represent the three primary aspects of the divine in Hinduism and are collectively known as the Trimurti. In this school of religious thought, Brahma is the creator, Vishnu is the maintainer or preserver, and Shiva is the destroyer or transformer.
Etymology and other names
A statue of Shiva near Indira Gandhi International Airport, Delhi
The Sanskrit word Shiva (Devanagari: शिव, śiva) is an adjective meaning auspicious, kind, gracious. As a proper name it means "The Auspicious One", used as a euphemistic name for Rudra. In simple English transliteration it is written either as Shiva or Siva. Pronunciation is written in the International Phonetic Alphabet as IPA: . The adjective śiva meaning "auspicious" is used as an attributive epithet not particularly of Rudra, but of several other Vedic deities. In the Rig Veda, Indra uses this word to describe himself several times. (2:20:3, 6:45:17, 8:93:3)
In Tamil, Shiva literally means "the supreme one". Tamil "Siva" means Red. Adi Sankara in his interpretation of the name Shiva, the 27th and 600th name of Vishnu sahasranama interprets Shiva to mean either "The Pure One", the One who is not affected by three Gunas of Prakrti, Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas or "the One who purifies everyone by the very utterance of His name." Swami Chinmayananda, in his translation of Vishnu sahasranama further elaborates on that verse: Shiva means the One who is eternally pure, or the One who can never have any contamination of the imperfection of Rajas and Tamas
The Sanskrit word śaiva means "relating to the God Shiva", and this term is the Sanskrit name both for one of the principal sects of Hinduism, and for a member of one of those sects. It is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism.
The name Shiva, in one interpretation, is also said to have derived from the Dravidian word “Siva” meaning “to be red”. It is the equivalent of Rudra, “the red” RigVeda.
Siva's role as the primary deity of Shaivism is reflected in his epithets Mahādeva ("great god"; mahā = great + deva = god), Maheśhvara ("great lord"; mahā = great + īśhvara = lord), and Parameśhvara ("Supreme Lord").
There are at least eight different versions of the Shiva Sahasranama, devotional hymns (stotras) listing many names of Shiva. The version appearing in Book 13 (Anuśāsanaparvan) of the Mahabharata is considered the kernel of this tradition. Shiva also has Dasha-Sahasranamas (10,000 names) that are found in the Mahanyasa. The Shri Rudram Chamakam, also known as the Śatarudriya, is a devotional hymn to Shiva hailing him by many names.
Historical development
For the early history, see Rudra.
The worship of Shiva is a pan-Hindu tradition, practiced widely across all of India, Nepal and Sri Lanka. Some historians believe that the figure of Shiva as we know him today was built-up over time, with the ideas of many regional sects being amalgamated into a single figure. How the persona of Shiva converged as a composite deity is not well-documented. Axel Michaels explains the composite nature of Shaivism as follows:
An example of assimilation took place in Maharashtra, where a regional deity named Khandoba is a patron deity of farming and herding castes. The foremost center of worship of Khandoba in Maharashtra is in Jejuri. Khandoba has been assimilated both as a name for Karttikya and also as a form of Shiva himself in which case he is worshipped in the form of a lingam. Khandoba's varied associations also include an indentification with Surya. The derivation of the name Khandoba has been variously interpreted, and M. S. Mate says that the most commonly-held belief is that it was a distorted form of Skanda, but also notes alternate theories.
The Pashupati seal
A seal discovered during the excavation of Mohenjo-daro has drawn attention as a possible representation of a "proto-Shiva" figure. This "Pashupati" (Lord of animal-like beings) seal shows a seated figure, possibly ithyphallic, surrounded by animals. Sir John Marshall and others have claimed that this figure is a prototype of Shiva, and have described the figure as having three faces, seated in a "yoga posture" with the knees out and feet joined. However, this claim is not without its share of critics with some academics like Gavin Flood and John Keay characterizing them as unfounded.
Rudra
Main article: Rudra
Three-headed Shiva, Gandhara, 2nd century CE
Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god Rudra and both Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in a number of Hindu traditions. Rudra, the god of the roaring storm, is usually portrayed in accordance with the element he represents as a fierce, destructive deity.
The oldest surviving text of Hinduism is the Rig Veda, which is dated to between 1700–1100 BCE based on linguistic and philological evidence. A god named Rudra is mentioned in the Rig Veda. The name Rudra is still used as a name for Shiva. In RV 2.33 he is described as the "Father of the Maruts", a group of storm gods. Furthermore, the Rudram, one of the most sacred hymns of Hinduism found both in the Rig and the Yajur Vedas, and addressed to Rudra, invokes him as Shiva in several instances. But the term Shiva is used as a epithet for Indra, Mitra and Agni many times.
The identification of Shiva with the older god Rudra is not universally accepted, as Axel Michaels explains:
Rudra is called "The Archer" (Sanskrit: Śarva) and the arrow is an essential attribute of Rudra. This name appears in the Shiva Sahasranama, and R. K. Sharma notes that it is used as a name of Shiva often in later languages. The word is derived from the Sanskrit root śarv- which means "to injure" or "to kill" and Sharma uses that general sense in his interpretive translation of the name Śarva as "One who can kill the forces of darkness". The names Dhanvin ("Bowman") and Bāṇahasta ("Archer", literally "Armed with arrows in his hands") also refer to archery.
Identification with Vedic deities
Shiva's rise to a major position in the pantheon was facilitated by his identification with a host of Vedic deities, including Agni, Indra, Prajāpati, Vāyu, and others.
Agni
Rudra and Agni have a close relationship. The identification between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic literature was an important factor in the process of Rudra's gradual development into the later character as Rudra-Shiva. The identification of Agni with Rudra is explicitly noted in the Nirukta, an important early text on etymology, which says "Agni is called Rudra also". The interconnections between the two deities are complex, and according to Stella Kramrisch:
In the Śatarudrīa, some epithets of Rudra such as Sasipańjara ("Of golden red hue as of flame") and Tivaṣīmati ("Flaming bright") suggest a fusing of the two deities. Agni is said to be a bull and Lord Shiva possesses a bull as his vehicle, Nandi. The horns of Agni, who is sometimes characterized as a bull, are mentioned. In medieval sculpture both Agni and the form of Shiva known as Bhairava have flaming hair as a special feature.
Indra
The Indologist, Koenraad Elst proposes that Shiva of Puranic Hinduism is a continuation of the Vedic Indra. He gives several reasons for his hypothesis. Both Shiva and Indra are known for having a thirst for Soma. Both are associated with mountains, rivers, male fertility, fierceness, fearlessness, warfare, transgression of established mores, the Aum sound, the Supreme Self. In the Rig Veda the term śiva is used to refer to Indra. (2.20.3, 6.45.17, and 8.93.3.)
Indra, like Shiva, is likened to a bull. In the Rig Veda, Rudra is the father of the Maruts, but he is never associated with their warlike exploits as is Indra. In the present form of Hinduism, Indra and Shiva are considered as distinct deities.
Attributes
Shiva with Parvati. Shiva is depicted three-eyed, with crescent moon on his head, the Ganga flowing through his matted hair, wearing ornaments of serpents and a skull necklace, covered in ashes and Trisula and Damaru are seen in the background.
* Third Eye: Shiva is often depicted with a third eye with which he burned Desire (Kāma) to ashes. There has been controversy regarding the original meaning of Shiva's name Tryambakam (Sanskrit: त्र्यम्बकम्), which occurs in many scriptural sources. In classical Sanskrit the word ambaka denotes "an eye", and in the Mahabharata Shiva is depicted as three-eyed, so this name is sometimes translated as "Having Three Eyes". However, in Vedic Sanskrit the word ambā or ambikā means "mother", and this early meaning of the word is the basis for the translation "Having Three Mothers" that was used by Max Müller and Arthur Macdonell. Since no story is known in which Shiva had three mothers, E. Washburn Hopkins suggested that the name refers not to three mothers, but to three Mother-goddesses who are collectively called the Ambikās. Other related translations have been "having three wives or sisters", or based on the idea that the name actually refers to the oblations given to Rudra, which according to some traditions were shared with the goddess Ambikā.
* Blue Throat: The epithet Nīlakaṇtha (Sanskrit नीलकण्ठ; nīla = blue, kaṇtha = throat) refers to a story in which Shiva drank the poison churned up from the world ocean. (see: Halāhala)
* Crescent Moon: Shiva bears on his head the crescent of the moon. The epithet Chandraśekhara (Sanskrit: चन्द्रशेखर "Having the moon as his crest" - chandra = Moon, śekhara = crest, crown) refers to this feature. The placement of the moon on his head as a standard iconographic feature dates to the period when Rudra rose to prominence and became the major deity Rudra-Shiva. The origin of this linkage may be due to the identification of the moon with Soma, and there is a hymn in the Rig Veda where Soma and Rudra are jointly emplored, and in later literature Soma and Rudra came to be identified with one another, as were Soma and the Moon.
* Matted Hair: Shiva's distinctive hair style is noted in the epithets Jaṭin, "The One with matted hair" and Kapardin, "Endowed with matted hair" or "wearing his hair wound in a braid in a shell-like (kaparda) fashion". A kaparda is a cowrie shell, or a braid of hair in the form of a shell, or more generally hair that is shaggy or curly.
Shiva Bearing the Descent of the Ganges River as Parvati and Bhagiratha, and the bull Nandi look, folio from a Hindi manuscript by the saint Narayan, circa 1740
* Sacred Ganga: The Ganga river flows from the matted hair of Shiva. The epithet Gaṅgādhara ("Bearer of the river Gaṅgā") refers to this feature. The Ganga (Ganges), one of the major rivers of the country, is said to have made her abode in Shiva's hair.
* Ashes: Shiva smears his body with ashes (bhasma). Some forms of Shiva, such as Bhairava, are associated with a very old Indian tradition of cremation-ground asceticism that was practiced by some groups who were outside the fold of brahmanic orthodoxy. These practices associated with cremation grounds are also mentioned in the Pali canon of Theravada Buddhism. One epithet for Shiva is "Inhabitant of the cremation ground" (Sanskrit: śmaśānavāsin, also spelled Shmashanavasin) referring to this connection.
* Tiger skin: He is often shown seated upon a tiger skin, an honour reserved for the most accomplished of Hindu ascetics, the Brahmarishis. "Mythology ~ The birth of Brahmarishis" (HTML). Retrieved on 2008-05-07.
* Serpents: Shiva is often shown garlanded with a snake.
* Trident: (Sanskrit: Trishula): Shiva's particular weapon is the trident.
* Drum: A small drum shaped like an hourglass is known as a damaru (Sanskrit: ḍamaru). This is one of the attributes of Shiva in his famous dancing representation known as Nataraja. A specific hand gesture (mudra) called ḍamaru-hasta (Sanskrit for "ḍamaru-hand") is used to hold the drum. This drum is particularly used as an emblem by members of the Kāpālika sect.
* Nandī: Nandī also known as Nandin, is the name of the bull that serves as Shiva's mount (Sanskrit: vāhana). Shiva's association with cattle is reflected in his name Paśupati or Pashupati (Sanskrit पशुपति), translated by Sharma as "Lord of cattle" and by Kramrisch as "Lord of Animals", who notes that it is particularly used as an epithet of Rudra.
* Gaṇa: The Gaṇas (Devanagari: गण) are attendants of Shiva and live in Kailash. They are often referred to as the Boothaganas, or ghostly hosts, on account of their nature. Generally benign, except when their Lord is transgressed against, they are often invoked to intercede with the Lord on behalf of the devotee. Ganesha was chosen as their leader by Shiva, hence Ganesha's title gaṇa-īśa or gaṇa-pati, "lord of the gaṇas".
* Mount Kailāsa: Mount Kailash in the Himalayas is his traditional abode. In Hindu mythology, Mount Kailāsa is conceived as resembling a Linga, representing the center of the universe.
* Varanasi: Varanasi (Benares) is considered as the city specially-loved by Shiva, and is one of the holiest places of pilgrimage in India. It is referred to, in religious contexts, as Kashi.
Forms and depictions
According to Gavin Flood, "Śiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox", whose attributes include opposing themes. The ambivalent nature of this deity is apparent in some of his names and the stories told about him.
Destroyer versus benefactor
Shiva carrying the corpse of his first consort Dakshayani (Sati).
In the Yajurveda two contrary sets of attributes for both malignant or terrific (Sanskrit: rudra) and benign or auspicious (Sanskrit: śiva) forms can be found, leading Chakravarti to conclude that "all the basic elements which created the complex Rudra-Śiva sect of later ages are to be found here." In the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as "the standard of invincibility, might, and terror", as well as a figure of honor, delight, and brilliance. The duality of Shiva's fearful and auspicious attributes appears in contrasted names.
The name Rudra (Sanskrit रुद्र) reflects his fearsome aspects. According to traditional etymologies, the Sanskrit name Rudra is derived from the root rud- which means "to cry, howl." Stella Kramrisch notes a different etymology connected with the adjectival form raudra, which means wild, of rudra nature, and translates the name Rudra as "the Wild One" or "the Fierce God". R. K. Sharma follows this alternate etymology and translates the name as "Terrible". Hara (Sanskrit हर) is an important name that occurs three times in the Anushasanaparvan version of the Shiva sahasranama, where it is translated in different ways each time it occurs, following a commentorial tradition of not repeating an interpretation. Sharma translates the three as "One who captivates", "One who consolidates", and "One who destroys." Kramrisch translates it as "The Ravisher". Another of Shiva's fearsome forms is as Kāla (Sanskrit: काल), "Time", and as Mahākāla (Sanskrit: महाकाल), "Great Time", which ultimately destroys all things. Bhairava (Sanskrit: भैरव), "Terrible" or "Frightful" is a fierce form associated with annihilation.
In contrast, the name Śaṇkara (Sanskrit शङ्कर), "Beneficent" or "Conferring Happiness" reflects his benign form. This name was adopted by the great Vedanta philosopher Śaṇkara (c. 788-820 CE), who is also known as Shankaracharya. The name Śambhu (Sanskrit: शम्भु), "Causing Happiness", also reflects this benign aspect.
Ascetic versus householder
An illustration of the family of Shiva, consisting of Shiva, Parvati, Ganesha and Skanda (Kartikeya)
He is depicted as both an ascetic yogin and as a householder, roles which are mutually exclusive in Hindu society. When depicted as a yogin he may be shown sitting and meditating. His epithet Mahāyogin (The Great Yogi: Mahā = great, Yogin = one who practices Yoga) refers to his association with yoga. While Vedic religion was conceived mainly in terms of sacrifice, it was during the Epic period that concepts of tapas, yoga, and asceticism, became more important, and the depiction of Shiva as an ascetic sitting in philosophical isolation reflects these later concepts.
As a family man and householder he has a wife, Parvati (also known as Umā), and two sons, Ganesha and Skanda. His epithet Umāpati ("The husband of Umā") refers to this idea, and Sharma notes that two other variants of this name that mean the same thing, Umākānta and Umādhava, also appear in the sahasranama. Umā in epic literature is known by many names, including the benign Pārvatī. She is identified with Devi, the Divine Mother, and with Shakti (divine energy). As a householder he is known for the great love and respect he has for his consort.
Shiva and Parvati are the parents of Karthikeya and Ganesha. Karthikeya is worshipped in southern India (especially in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka) by the names Subrahmanyan, Shanmughan, Swaminathan and Murugan, and in northern India, is better known by the names Skanda, Kumara, or Karttikeya. The consorts of Lord Shiva are the source of his creative energy. They represent the dynamic extension of Shiva onto this universe
Nataraja
Bronze Chola Statue depicting Shiva dancing as Nataraja. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.
Main article: Nataraja
The depiction of Shiva as Nataraja (Tamil: நடராஜா, Sanskrit: naṭarāja, "Lord of Dance") is popular. The names Nartaka ("Dancer") and Nityanarta ("Eternal Dancer") appear in the Shiva Sahasranama. His association with dance and also with music is prominent in the Puranic period. In addition to the specific iconographic form known as Nataraja, various other types of dancing forms (Sanskrit: nṛtyamūrti) are found in all parts of India, with many well-defined varieties in Tamil Nadu (in southern India) in particular. The two most common forms of the dance are the Lasya (the gentle erotic dance) that is associated with the creation of the world and the Tandava(the violent and the dangerous dance) that is associated with the destruction of the world. In essence, the Lasya and the Tandava are just two aspects of Shiva's nature; for he destroys in order to create, tearing down to build again.
Dakṣiṇāmūrti
Main article: Dakshinamurthy
Dakṣiṇāmūrti (Sanskrit: दक्षिणामूर्ति) literally describes a form (mūrti) of Shiva facing south (dakṣiṇa). This form represents Shiva in his aspect as a teacher of yoga, music, and wisdom, and giving exposition on the shastras. This iconographic form for depicting Shiva in Indian art is mostly from Tamil Nadu. Elements of this motif can include Shiva seated upon a deer-throne and surrounded by sages who are receiving his instruction.
Mrutyunjaya
Literally translated as 'victor over death', this is an aspect of Shiva worshipped as the conqueror of Death as manifested in the Hindu lord of death, Yama. The particular legend in question deals with the sage Markandeya, who was fated to die at the age of sixteen. On account of the sage's worship and devotion to Shiva, the Lord vanquished Yama to liberate his devotee from death. Shiva is often worshipped as Mruthyunjaya by the aged or ill, to ward off death and mitigate its harshness when it does occur. He is worshipped as such at the temples of Thirupainyeeli, near Trichinopoly, and at a shrine in Thirukadaiyur, near Chidambaram.
Chola bronze from the 11th century. Shiva in the form of Ardhanarisvara.
Ardhanarishvara
Main article: Ardhanari
An iconographic representation of Shiva called Ardhanarishvara shows him with one half of the body as male, and the other half as female. According to Ellen Goldberg, the traditional Sanskrit name for this form, (Ardhanārīśvara) is best translated as "the lord who is half woman", and not as "half-man, half-woman". In Hindu philosophy, this is used to visualize the belief that the sacred ultimate power of the universe as being both feminine and masculine.
Tripurāntaka
Main article: Tripurantaka
See also: Tripura (mythology)
Lord Shiva is often depicted as an archer in the act of destroying the triple fortresses, Tripura, of the Asuras. Shiva's name Tripurāntaka (Sanskrit: त्रिपुरान्तक), "Ender of Tripura", refers to this important story.
Metaphysically, Tripura has been considered by many scholars to mean the three kinds of bodies of man viz. `Sthula sharira'- the external embodiment, `Sukshma sharira' - the intellectual corpus and `Karana sharira' - the consciousness or the soul. The Tripurāntaka manifestation of the Lord destroys and extinguishes the tri-partite compartmentalisation of the being and merges all the three essential componenets of man into the supreme consciousness. The Lord as Tripurāntaka destroys the veil of maya, agyaan(ignorance) and effects the unision of the indivdual soul with the supreme consciousness.
Lingam
Main article: Lingam
See also: Jyotirlinga
Apart from anthropomorphic images of Shiva, the worship of Shiva in the form of a lingam is also important. These are depicted in various forms. One common form is the shape of a vertical rounded column.
The five mantras
Adoration of Five-headed Shiva by Vishnu (blue figure, to left of Shiva),Brahma (four headed figure to the right of Shiva), Ganesha (elephant-headed son of Shiva, bottom left) and other deities. Painting from LACMA
Five is a sacred number for Shiva. One of his most important mantras has five syllables (namaḥ śivāya).
Shiva's body is said to consist of five mantras, called the pańcabrahmans: As forms of god, each of these have their own names and distinct iconography:
* Sadyojāta
* Vāmadeva
* Aghora
* Tatpuruṣa
* Īsāna
These are represented as the five faces of Shiva, and are associated in various texts with the five elements, the five senses, the five organs of perception, and the five organs of action. Doctrinal differences and possibly errors in transmission have resulted in some differences between texts in details of how these five forms are linked with various attributes. But the overall meaning of these associations is summarized by Stella Kramrisch:
Relationship to Vishnu
Vishnu (left half - blue) and Shiva (right half - white)
During the Vedic period, both Vishnu and Shiva (as identified with Rudra) played relatively minor roles, but by the time of the Brahmanas (c. 1000-700 BCE) both were gaining ascendance. By the Puranic period both deities had major sects that competed with one another for devotees. Many stories developed showing different types of relationships between these two important deities.
Sectarian forces each presented their own preferred deity as supreme. Vishnu in his myths "becomes" Shiva. The Vishnu Purana (4th c. CE) shows Vishnu awakening and becoming both Brahmā to create the world, and Shiva to destroy it. Shiva also is viewed as a manifestation of Vishnu in the Bhagavata Purana. In Shaivite myths, on the other hand, Shiva comes to the fore and acts independently and alone to create, preserve, and destroy the world. In one Shaivite myth of the origin of the lingam, both Vishnu and Brahmā are revealed as emanations from Shiva's manifestation as a towering pillar of flame. The Śatarudrīya, a Shaivite hymn, says that Shiva is "of the form of Vishnu". Difference in viewpoints between the two sects is apparent in the story of Śarabha (also spelled "Sharabha"), the name of Shiva's incarnation in the composite form of man, bird, and beast. Shiva assumed that unusual form to chastise Vishnu in his hybrid form as Narasimha, the man-lion, who killed Hiranyakashipu, an ardent devotee of Shiva.
Syncretic forces produced stories in which the two deities were shown in cooperative relationships and combined forms. Harihara is the name of a combined deity form of both Vishnu (Hari) and Shiva (Hara). This dual form, which is also called Harirudra, is mentioned in the Mahabharata. An example of a collaboration story is one given to explain Shiva's epithet Mahābaleśvara, "Lord of Great Strength" (Maha = great, Bala = strength, Īśvara = Lord). This name refers to story in which Rāvaṇa was given a linga as a boon by Shiva on the condition that he carry it always. During his travels, he stopped near the present Deoghar in Bihar to purify himself and asked Narada a devotee of Vishnu in the guise of a Brahmin to hold the linga for him, but after some time Narada put it down on the ground and vanished. When Ravana returned, he could not move the linga, and it is said to remain there ever since. The story of Gokarna in karnataka also similar that ravana on the way to lanka from kailasa gave the lingam to ganesa to kep till he bathes, but the gasesha fits it in the earth. so the lingam is called as mahabaleswara.
As one story goes, Shiva is enticed by the beauty and charm of Mohini, Vishnu's avatar and sleeps with her. Due to this union Lord Ayyappa is born.
Avatars
Shiva, like some other Hindu deities, is said to have several incarnations, known as Avatars. Adi Shankara, the 8th-century philosopher of non-dualist Vedanta was named "Shankara" after Lord Shiva and is considered to have been an incarnation of Shiva. In the Hanuman Chalisa Hanuman is identified as the eleventh avatar of Shiva.
Temples
108 shiva lingas carved on the rock at the banks of river Tungabhadra, Hampi
In Shaivism, Shiva is the God of all and is described as worshipped by all, from Devas (gods) such as Brahma, Indra, by Asuras(demons) like Bana, Ravana, by humans like Adi Shankara, Nayanars, by creatures as diverse as Jatayu, an eagle, and Vali, an ape. Deities, rishis (sages), grahas (planets), worshipped Shiva and established Shivalingas in various places.
The holiest Shiva temples are the 12 Jyotirlinga temples. They are Somnath – Prabhas Patan, Nageshwar – Dwarka, Mahakaleshwar – Ujjain, Mallikārjuna – Srisailam, Bhimashankar, Omkareshwar, Kedarnath, Kashi Vishwanath – Varanasi, Trimbakeshwar – near Nasik, Rameswaram – Rameswaram, Grishneshwar – near Ellora and Vaidyanath – Deoghar.
In South India, five temples of Shiva are held to be particularly important, as being manifestations of him in the five elemental substances:
1. Tiruvannamalai, as Fire
2. Kachipuram, as Earth
3. Tiruvanaikaval, as Water
4. Chidambaram, as Ether
5. Srikalahasti, as Air
Other notable temples in India include: Vemulawada in Karimnagar District of Andhra Pradesh, Kaleswaram in Karimnagar District of Andhra Pradesh, Daaksharamam in East Godavari District of Andhra Pradesh, Brammaramba-Mallikarjuna Temple in Srisailam at Kurnool District of Andhra Pradesh, Meenakshi Amman Temple in Madurai, Brihadeeswarar Temple in Thanjavur, Aragalur, and Nellaiappar Temple in Tirunelveli. The Pashupatinath Temple in Nepal and the pilgrimage site of Kailash Mansarovar are noteworthy. The world famous Amarnath Yatra to the Amarnath ji Cave in Kashmir(India) is also significant.
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frumoase :nod:
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the Gateway of India (Marathi: भारताचे प्रवेशद्वार) is a monument in Mumbai (formerly Bombay), India. Located on the waterfront in Apollo Bunder area in South Mumbai, the Gateway is a basalt arch 26 metres (85 ft) high. In earlier times, the Gateway was the monument that visitors arriving by boat would have first seen in the city of Bombay.
The Gateway is built from yellow basalt and reinforced concrete. While Indo-Saracenic in architectural style, elements are derived from the Muslim architectural styles of 16th century Gujarat. The central dome is 15 metres (49 ft) in diameter and is 26 metres (85 ft) above ground at its highest point. The whole harbour front was realigned in order to come in line with a planned esplanade which would sweep down to the centre of the town. The cost of the construction was Rs. 21 lakhs (2,100,000), borne mainly by the Government of India. For lack of funds, the approach road was never built, and so the Gateway stands at an angle to the road leading up to it.
History
The Writing on the Gateway of India which reads "Erected to commemorate the landing in India of their Imperial Majesties King George V and Queen Mary on the Second of December MCMXI".
The Gateway of India was built to commemorate the visit of King George V and Queen Mary to Bombay, prior to the Delhi Durbar, in December 1911. The foundation stone was laid on 31 March 1911, by the Governor of Bombay Sir George Sydenham Clarke, with the final design of George Wittet sanctioned in August 1914. Between 1915 and 1919 work proceeded on reclamations at Apollo Bundar for the land on which the gateway and the new sea wall would be built. The foundations were completed in 1920, and construction was finished in 1924. The Gateway was opened on 4 December 1924, by the Viceroy, the Earl of Reading.
The last British troops to leave India, the First Battalion of the Somerset Light Infantry, passed through the Gateway in a ceremony on 28 February 1948.
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ms de poze...ink cateva poze in marea mea colectie shahrukh khan:X:X....thnx:X:X
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cuplu
14.09.2008
34.8KB
am uitat poza asta :D
11.11.2008
33.4KB
:D l-am vazut acum cateva zile. e super filmul :D mai ales ami e super haios
11.11.2008
44.8KB
o love shahrukh khan:X:X::X:X:X:Xthe best :nebun: :nebun: :nebun:
30.08.2008
21.1KB
chiar dak majoritatea au fost triste..thnx:X:X
30.08.2008
14.2KB
Hinduismul este o religie originara din India si este in mare parte practicata de toti locuitorii acestei tari, cat si de cei care au emigrat din India in alte parti ale lumii (mai ales in Africa de E, S, S-E Asiei, India de E si Anglia,America). Cuvantul hindu este derivate din cuvantul din limba sanscrita sindhu=rau, mai specific se refera la Indus. In secolul V, persienii au fost numiti asa, pentru ca erau identificati ca oamenii de pe pamanturile Indus. Hinduistii definesc propria comunitate ca fiind ,,cei care cred in Vedas’’ sau ,,cei care urmeaza calea’’(dharma) celor patru categorii (Varnas) si trepte ale vietii (Ashramas).
Literatura religioasa hindusa se imparte in doua mari grupe denumite shruti si smrti, iar limba in care au fost redactate este sanscrita.
I.Shruti (auz), cuprinde acel grup de scrieri, considerate ca revelatie sfanta, pastrate prin traditie orala. Din acesta colectie fac parte : Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, Atharva Veda, Brahmanas Aranyakas si Upanishadele.
Aceste scrieri exista din totdeauna ,sunt de origine supranaturala si au fost transmise prin oameni sfinti (profeti).
Rig Veda - Nu se poate afirma cu certitudine data scrierii cartilor vedice. Unii ganditori sunt de parere ca inceputurile epocii vedice ar putea fi plasate in jurul secolului al XV-lea.
Veda Imnelor (Rig Veda) contine 1028 de imne. Acestea erau recitate de un preot, in timpul jertfelor ca rugaciuni de invocare a zeilor.
Sama Veda are 1810 versuri. Cu exceptia a 75 de versuri, toate celelalte se afla in Rig Veda. Aceasta colectie este compusa din cantece si melodii pentru preoti.
Yajur Veda contine formule folosite in cadrul jertfelor. Textul ei este impartit in doua variante: Veda alba - shukla veda si Veda neagra - krishna veda. Prima parte contine texte scripturistice, iar a doua instructiuni privind oficierea jertfelor.
Atharva Veda este formata din 731 de imne cu caracter magic. Aceasta colectie este importanta pentru faptul ca aici suntem confruntati cu inceputurile unei gandiri speculative.
Textele Brahmanas, dintre care cel mai important este Shatapatha-Brahmana, sunt simple explicatii si interpretari ale ritualurilor folosite in cadrul anumitor jertfe. Ele ocupa un loc deosebit in istoria gandirii indiene prin aceea ca reprezinta o trecere de la gandirea mitica la gandirea logica.
In ordine cronologica, aceste texte sunt urmate de scrierile speculative cunos¬cute sub denumirea Aranyakas. Acestea contin meditatii ale eremitilor indieni, asu¬pra semnificatiei jertfei si a cuvantului sacru brahman.
Upanishadele reprezinta chintesenta gandirii religioase si filozofice a indienilor. In ele gasim completarea si consumarea gandirii vedice.
Gandirea upanishadica adopta fata de traditia jertfelor interminabile o atitudine negativa, si incearca, putem spune cu succes, sa infiltreze un nou spirit, al contem¬platiei, prin care jertfa este inlocuita printr-un act meditativ.
Hindusii cred ca faptele bune pot ameliora situatia individului inlantuit in procesul reincarnarii, dandu-i acestuia o sansa mai mare de eliberare in una din intruparile care vor urma. Eliberarea se efectueaza insa prin cunoasterea identitatii ontologice: « tat tvam asi - Acela esti tu. »
Invatatura Upanishadelor este patrunsa de pesimism si neliniste, de cautarea per¬manenta dupa Absolut. Nu se poate afirma ca Upanishadele reprezinta un sistem de gandire teologic coerent. In ele se gasesc ingramadite idei de cele mai diferite nuante.
II.Smrti, cuprinde traditia sacra veche, considerata ca lucrare a omului. Aceste scrieri au un caracter didactic.
In ordine cronologica, Vedangas (membrele vedei), sunt cele mai vechi. Ele tra¬teaza probleme de fonetica, gramatica, etimologie, astronomie si ritual. Cartile legale, Dharma Shastras (Manuale legale), reprezinta o amplificare a textelor Vedangas. Din¬tre acestea cele mai importante sunt Legile lui Manu. Scrise candva intre anii 200 i.Hr. si 200 d. Hr. Legile lui Manu contin nu numai principii legale, ci si indrumari si reguli privind conduita zilnica. Sistemul de casta este interpretat ca insumand anu¬mite responsabilitati morale si nicidecum un principiu in baza caruia, prin nastere, anumiti oameni se bucura de privilegii, iar altii nu.
Putem sa mai amintim cele 18 Puranas (vechi istorisiri) care trateaza cinci subiecte: creatia, a doua creatie, genealogia zeilor si sfintilor, descrierea perioade¬lor marilor patriarhi si istoria familiilor regale. Bhagavat Purana, cartea sfanta a vish-navasilor (urmasilor lui Vishnu) este cea mai cinstita dintre Puranas.
In cele din urma, sunt faimoasele epopei indiene Ramayana si Maha Bharata, asemanate pe drept cuvant cu epopeile Greciei antice : Iliada si Odisea.
Ramayana sau Aventurile lui Rama, este cel mai vechi epic indian. A fost compus de inteleptul Valmiki in secolul al IV-lea sau al III-lea i.Hr. Textul epicului s-a pastrat in doua versiuni : una nordica, mai perfecta si alta bengaleza, care con¬tine o multime de adaugari.
Rugaciunea
Henry le Saux, afirma, ca rugaciunea suprema a hindusilor este AUM (OM), pianava, silaba sfanta a oricarui inchinator ce se adreseaza Divinitatii.
AUM este exclamatia celui coplesit de prezenta divina, cel mai simplu cuvant, cuvantul divin, vag, primul cuvant rostit si de divinitate cand se reveleaza in creatie sau cand este izvor sau origine a sufletului. Vag este sunetul brahman, inceputul cuvintelor si sensurilor lor. Silaba AUM (OM) este ultimul cuvant pe care se cuvine sa-l rosteasca omul ca fiinta insufletita, inainte de despartirea sufletului de trup si de intrarea sufletului in tacerea divina.
O alta rugaciune indiana, foarte frecventa se pronunta la funeralii, inainte de inhumarea decedatului. Aceasta rugaciune este un fragment din Rig-Veda: "O, zeu al mortii, pleaca departe, pe cararea ta, deosebita de aceea care duce la zei. Tie iti vorbesc, care ai ochi, care auzi; nu ne vatama copiii si bar¬batii. Voi, credinciosi, care ati venit si ati sters urma mortii, sa dobanditi pe viitor viata lunga, s-aveti parte de multi urmasi, sa fiti bogati, curati, neprihaniti... Dupa cum se insira zilele una dupa alta, tot asa, o, Creatorule, oranduieste bine vietile acestora... O, pamantule, deschide-te; nu apasa asupra lui, fii prietenos cu el (cu mortul) si ajuta-l; acopera-l, pamantule, ca mama pe copilul ei cu haina".
Zeitati hinduse
Agni : Zeitatea vedica a focului de pe altar si mijlocitorul dintre zei si oameni
Ganesa : Zeul indian al întelepciunii si al prudentei. Este reprezentat ca un om mic destatura, rosu sau galben, cu cap de elefant
Hanuman: Zeul-maimuta indian
Indra: Marele zeu national al indo-arienilor. Persoanele care îl cinstesc cred ca produce tunetul si ploaia, ca îsi copleseste dusmanii si ca îi rasplateste pe închinatori cu prada dobândita ca rezultat al victoriilor sale
Krisna : Cea de-a opta întrupare a lui Visnu si una dintre cele mai adorate dintre zeitatile hinduiste
Laksmi : Zeita hinduista a frumusetii si bogatiei. Ea este consoarta lui Visnu
Parvati : Zeita indiana considerata fiica Himalaiei
Sarasvati : Consoarta lui Brahma si zeita învataturii, a muncii si a oratoriei
Varuna: Zeitate cosmica suprema a hinduismului. Este considerat creatorul, conducatorul si în deosebi pazitorul lumii cosmice
Visnu: A doua zeitate (al doilea zeu) din trinitatea hinduista, numit si “Pastratorul”
Shiva : Shiva este cel de-al treilea membru al Trinitatii Hinduse, ceilalti doi fiind Brahma si Vishnu. Shiva protejeaza sufletele impotriva durerilor si a suferintelor care ar fi cauzate de existenta unui univers disfunctional.
21.12.2008
40.1KB
The Tomb of Akbar the Great is an important architectural masterpiece set in 48 Ha (119 acres) of grounds in Sikandra a suburb of Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India.
The third Mughal Emperor Akbar the Great (1542 – 1605), himself commenced its construction in around 1600, according to Tartary tradition to commence the construction of one's tomb during one's lifetime. Akbar himself planned his own tomb and selected a suitable site for it, after his death, Akbar's son Jahangir completed the construction in 1605-1613.
Overview
It is located at Sikandra, in the suburbs of Agra, on the Mathura road (NH2), 8 km WNW of the city center. The grounds are a precise 690 m square, aligned with the points of the compass, surrounded by walls, and laid out as a classic charbagh. A gatehouse stands at the center of each wall, and broad paved avenues, laid out in Mughal style with central running water channels representing the four rivers of Paradise, lead from these to the tomb at the center of the square. The south gate is the largest, with four white marble chhatri-topped minarets which are similar to (and pre-date) those of the Taj Mahal, and is the normal point of entry to the tomb. The tomb itself is surrounded by a walled enclosure 105 m square. The tomb building is a four-tiered pyramid, surmounted by a marble pavilion containing the false tomb. The true tomb, as in other mausoleums, is in the basement.
Architecture
The buildings are constructed mainly from a deep red sandstone, enriched with features in white marble. Decorated inlaid panels of these materials and a black slate adorn the tomb and the main gatehouse. Panel designs are geometric, floral and calligraphic, and prefigure the more complex and subtle designs later incorporated in Itmad-ud-Daulah's Tomb.
04.01.2009
40.7KB
poza asta e pt u sweetsrk :D
04.08.2008
50.2KB
pai de pe torrentzi :D:D
13.01.2009
49.6KB
Tandoori chicken
Ingrediente
-pui (pulpele de sus ale puiului)
-iaurt (sa fie mai gros de preferinta)
-masala- sau tandoori- condiment indian (se gasesc la orice supermarket)
-usturoi pisat (ca pentru mujdei)6 -8 catei
-coriander cateva frunze
-2 linguri suc de lamaie
-2 linguri de ulei
-putina radacina de ginger data pe razatoare
-putina sare (dupa gust)
Preparare
Amestecati iaurtul cu sarea,usturoiul, sucul de lamaie, uleiul, corianderul taiat fin taiat si cu gingerul dat fin pe razatoarea mica.
La sfarsit adaugati masala sau tandoori pudra (care-i de culoarea rosie). Se amesteca si se adauga puiul (pulpele).
Se lasa totul la macerat peste noapte.
A doua zi, se pregateste barbeque-ul (gratarul) si pune puiul pe gratar.(se scot bineinteles din iaurtul din care a stat peste noapte.)
04.12.2008
25.5KB
cum se inbraca si chiar trebuie o fusta sub sari plis lb rom :rusine: nu stiu engleza tk :D
23.01.2009
40KB
:hi:
22.03.2009
14.6KB
Freida Pinto (born October 18, 1984) is an Indian actress and professional model, best known for her performance as Latika in her debut film Slumdog Millionaire, which won the Academy Award for Best Picture in 2009. Pinto won a Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture and was nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role.
Personal life and background
Freida Pinto was born in Mumbai to Sylvia Pinto, a principal of St. John's Universal High School (Goregaon), and Frederick Pinto, a senior branch manager at the Bank of Baroda. Freida Pinto's father is from Neerude and mother from Derebail, both towns in Mangalore. She is a Mangalorean. and in an interview, Pinto stated that she is "completely pure Indian", but that her family is Catholic and some of her ancestors were probably of Portuguese background, which explains the origin of her surname Pinto
Her older sister Sharon Pinto is an associate producer on the NDTV news channel.
Pinto studied at Carmel of St. Joseph School in Malad and completed her Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree in English Literature from St. Xavier's College, Mumbai. She currently resides in Malad, a suburb of Mumbai.
She is also trained in different forms of Indian classical dance as well as Salsa.
She was once engaged to her former publicist Rohan Antao, but she called off the engagement soon after she achieved stardom.She is currently dating Slumdog Millionaire co-star, Dev Patel.She was also featured in People Magazine's Most Beautiful People List.
Career
Before starring in Slumdog Millionaire, Pinto anchored the international travel show, Full Circle on Zee International Asia Pacific in English between 2006-08. Pinto was also featured in several television and print advertisements for products such as Wrigley's Chewing Gum, Škoda, Vodafone India, Airtel, and DeBeers. Pinto modeled for four years and appeared in runway shows and magazine covers. She learned acting from The Barry John's Acting Studio in Andheri and was trained by her mentor Barry John.After six months of auditions, she received a call to audition for Slumdog Millionaire. Pinto auditioned for Danny Boyle and was short-listed and finally selected to star in Slumdog Millionaire.
Pinto made her feature film debut in 2008. Slumdog Millionaire tells the story of a young man from the slums of Mumbai who appears on a game show and exceeds people's expectations, arousing the suspicions of the game show host and of law enforcement officials. In the film, Pinto played the role of Latika, the girl with whom Jamal (Dev Patel) is in love. At the 2008 Toronto International Film Festival, the movie won the Cadillac People's Choice Award. At the 2009 Golden Globe Awards, the movie won four awards. Pinto herself was nominated for "Best Actress in a Supporting Role" at the 2009 BAFTA Awards,and won the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture alongside other cast members from Slumdog Millionaire.
She has completed work on Miral, a Franco-Israeli film directed by Julian Schnabel. Pinto has been cast in Woody Allen's next film set in London, which co-stars Antonio Banderas, Josh Brolin, Anthony Hopkins, Anupam Kher and Naomi Watts.
On 13 May 2009 it was announced that Pinto was to become the new 'face' of L'Oréal despite rumours that she was due to sign a "six figure deal" with rival cosmetics firm Estee Lauder.
11.09.2009
28.3KB
imi place mult filmul asta :X:) e superb :X
:) :uimit: :rolleyes:
01.03.2009
27.6KB
:rotfl:
22.03.2009
39.2KB
care e parerea voastra despre relatia ei cu saif ali khan??
mie mi se par draguti k sot si sotie
:X:X
pt cine nu stie sau casatorit in secret in vara asta
